Affirmative and Negative Agreements

There are two types of agreements.
a. Affirmative Agreement
b. Negative Agreement
Observe the following structures:
a. Affirmative Agreements:
subject + auxiliary verb + too
so + auxiliary verb + subject
examples:
1. He is happy. I am happy.
He is happy and I am too.
He is happy and so am I.
2. She is working. They are working.
She is working and they are too.
She is working and so are they.
3. I need help. He needs help.
I need help and he does too.
I need help and so does he.
b. Negative Agreements:
neither + auxiliary verb + subject
subject + auxiliary verb + either
example:
1. She doesn’t smoke. He doesn’t smoke.
She doesn’t smoke and neither does he.
She doesn’t smoke and he doesn’t either.
2. I never watch TV. They never watch TV.
I never watch TV and neither do they.
I never watch TV and they don’t either.

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Embedded questions

Definition: Embedded questions are questions which are hidden between two sentences.
Note: Don’t put an auxiliary verb between the embedded question and the subject that comes after it.
Examples:
1. How old are you?
I am not sure how old I am.
2. When did the plane arrive?
Do you know when the plane arrived?
3. How long was the class?
I have no idea how long the class was.
4. Where does he live?
I don’t know where he lives.

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Intonation

Intonation is defined as a time or melody. It may also be called rise or fall in the speech sound or pitch change.
Types if intonation:
There are mainly 3 types of intonation. They are:
1. Rising intonation
2. Falling intonation
3. Mixed intonation

1.Rising intonation:
If our utterance (speech) ends with a high pitch, it marks intonation. The rising intonation can be used in the following Situations.
i. Yes/No – questions:
Is that your house?
ii. Repeated wh – question:
What? Who?
iii. Statement used as question:
Rita got married?
iv. Polite request:
Please, come in.
v. Greeting:
Good morning.
vi. Expression of Cordial gratefulness:
Thank you.

2. Falling intonation:
The falling intonation is usually marked by the fading voice at the end of the speech/utterance. We use it in the following cases
i. A simple statement:
Ravi wrote an essay.
ii. A simple compound:
Sit down.
iii. A simple wh - question:
What’s your name?
A simple expression of formality:
Thank you.

3. Mixed intonation:
- Rising + Falling
It is used in:
i. Yes/No – question containing two options connected by ‘or’
Will you have tea or coffee?
ii. Statement containing a list.
Hari saw a tiger, a bear, a monkey and a donkey.
iii. Negative command + question tag:
Don’t touch me, wil you?
iv. Sentence beginning with a dependent clause:
If you are ill, you can have a rest.
v. Sentence Containing the name of a person in the name of a person in direct address:
Mr. Thapa, this is my friend.

- Falling + Rising
It is used in:
i. Statement + question tag
It’s hot today, isn’t it?
ii. Affermative command + question tag
Do it, will you?

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Voice

Note: there are two voices in English (Active and Passive voice). In the active voice the door of the action is given important and in the passive voice the victim (object) is given prominence. The object which is acted upon gains significance and the doer recedes into the background.

Passive forms of active in English :

Simple Tense

Subject + (is/am/are) + past pacticles.

examples :

He often writes to me.

- I am often written to by him.

He teases them.

- They are tested by him.

Simple Past tense :

Subject + (was/were) + past particles.

examples :

Ram killed a snake.

- A snake was killed by Ram.

Sita ate the apples.

- The apples were eaten by Sita.

Future Tense :

Subject + (will/shall) + be + past particles.

examples :

They are repairing the bridge.

- The bridge is being repaired by them.

He is scolding us.

- We are being scolded by him.

Present Continuous Tense :

Subject + (is/am/are) + being + past participle.

examples :

They are repairing the bridge.

The bridge is being repaired by them.

He is scolding us.

We are being scolded by him.

Past Continuous Tense :

Subject + (was/were) + being + past particles

examples :

They were carrying the injured player off the field.

The injured player was being carried off the field.

Present perfect Tense :

Subject + (has/have) + bee + past participles.

I have returned all the books to the library.

- All the books have been returned to the library by me.

They have repaired the road.

- The road has been repaired by them.

Past perfect tense :

Subject + (had + been) + past participle.

examples :

She had taught me.

- I had been taught by her.

The farmer had branched the newly bought cattle.

- The newly bought bought cattle had been branched by the farmer.

Future Perfect Tense :

Subject + (will have/shall have) + been + past participle.

examples :

We will have completed our course within a few months.

- Our course will have been completed within a few months.

They will have read the novel by tommorow.

- The novel will have been read by them tommorow.

(Note : perfect continuous tenses are not used in passive).

Passive of different sentences :

1. Modals :

- When a sentence has (can, could, may, might, must, should, would, or ought to) then these modals themselves don’t change, ‘be’ is added before the main verb.

Examples :

I can read a book.

- A book can be read by me.

She ought to take medicine.

- The medicine ought to be taken by her.

- When ‘have’ is used after the modals in the active, ‘have been’ is used in the passive.

examples :

Ram should have told him.

- He should have told by Ram.

I may have eaten it.

- He should have been eaten by Ram.

- It may have been eaten by me.

- When infinitive is used in the active voice, ‘to be’ + past participle is used in the passive.

examples :

I am to write a letter.

- A letter is to be written by me.

He has to invite us.

- We have to be invited by him.

2. Interrogative :

While transforming active questions, two things must be remembered.

- The question form must be retained.

- The question mark should not be forgotten

examples :

Does she read novels ?

- Are novels read by her ?

Did Hari catch the bus ?

- Was the bus caught by Hari ?

Will she forgive us ?

- Shall we be firgiven by her ?

Can you carry the box ?

- Can the box be carried by you ?

How does the girl help the boy ?

- How is the boy helped by the boy ?

Who made the kite ?

- By whom was the kite made ?

- Who was the the kite made by ?

3. Infinitive construction after passive verbs :

(say, think, know, feel, find, understand, believe, considered, claim, agree, assume, acknowledge, estimate, presume, report, decide, hope, remember) take the following forms in the passive.

examples :

People say that he is a learned man.

- It is said that he is a learned man.

- He is said to be a learned man.

People know that he was a theif.

-It is known that he was a theif.

- He is known to have been a theif.

I saw him work.

- He was seen to work.

People think that she is working hard.

- She is thought to be working hard.

4. Imperative :

Draw the curtain.

- Let the curtain be drawn.

Do not make fun of the poor.

- Let the poor no be made fun of.

Please draw the figure.

- You are requested to draw the figure.

5. Gerund combination :

He recommended using bulletproof glass

- He recommended that bulletproof glass should be used.

6. Omission of “by”:

- When the action is more important than the doer.

examples :

People are destroying the jungle.

- The jungle is being destroyed.

They murdered the chief.

- The chief murdered the chief.

The radiologist will x-ray your hand.

- Your hand will be x-rayed.

We are building a new public library.

- A new public library is being built.

- When subject would be the indefinite pronoun “one” is used

One sees this sort of advertisement everywhere.

- This sort of advertisement is being seen everywhere

- When we don’t know or have forgotten who did the action we use someone or somebody

examples :

have Somebody has forgotten who d-id the action we complete

Someone has moved my car.

- My car has been moved by someone.

(Note : If the subject is people, they, we, somebody, someone, nobody, no one, everybody etc. we don’t normally use “by + agent”)

7. Sometimes a transitive verb takes two objects. Direct and Indirect object. :

When there is only object, it becomes the grammatical subject of the passive sentence, where as there are two objects either of them could become the grammatical subject in the passive form of the sentences.

examples :

My uncle offered me a gift.

- A gift was offered to me by my uncle.

- I was offered a gift by my uncle

(Note : The forms of ‘be’ cannot be changed to passive voice.)

examples :

He is a man. (cannot be changed to passive voice).

8. Preposition with passive verbs :

Some passive verbs take other prepositions instead of ‘by’ .

examples :

Know, Oblique, Marry, Please, Displace, Satisfy, Dissatisfy, Interest, Contain, Astonish, Surprise.

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Tag Questions

Definition: A tag is used at the end of a statement to confirm the statement.

Rules:

1. Use of auxiliary verbs:

Examples:

You could do me a favors, couldn’t?

I can do it, can’t I?

He should go, shouldn’t he?

I have my meal at 11 am, don’t I?

She had her meal, didn’t she?

Exception:

I have two brothers, haven’t I?

She has a cat, hasn’t she?

2. Use of main verbs:

Note: Change the main verbs into auxiliary verbs according to the tense form

Examples:

She drinks tea daily, doesn’t she?

I want to go, don’t I?

3. The verbs ‘need’ and ‘dare’ are treated as main verbs therefore, change them into auxiliary verbs according to their tense form.

Examples:

The verbs ‘need’ help, don’t I?

She dared sing, didn’t she?

Exception:

But if ‘need’ and ‘dare’ are negative in the statement then same main verbs are repeated in the tag.

Examples:

She needn’t go, need she?

I daren’t sing, dare I?

4. If the expression ‘I am’ is used in the statement, we use ‘aren’t I’ or ‘am I not’ in the tag.

Examples:

I am going to the library, aren’t I/am I not?

Exception:

I am not happy, am I?

5. If the statement is imperative then we use ‘will you’ in the tag whether the statement is negative or affirmative.

Examples:

Go to school, will you?

Don’t open the box, will you?

Please, go out, will you?

6. If the statement has the expression ‘let us’ we use ‘will you’ or ‘can we’ in the tag, but if the expression has ‘let’s’ we use ‘shall we’ in the tag.

Examples:

Let us go out, will you/can we?

Let’s have tea, shall we?

7. If the nouns everyone, everybody, somebody, someone is used in the statement then we use the plural form of the auxiliary verb and the subject ‘they’ is used in the tag.

Examples:

Everyone was there, weren’t they?

Somebody is coming, aren’t they?

Everyone thinks it is important, don’t they?

Exception:

Nobody is going, are they?

No one was there, were they?

8. If the subjects ‘something’ and ‘anything’ are used in the statement then we use ‘it’ as the subject in the tag.

Examples:

Somebody was done, wasn’t it?

Exception:

Nothing is done, is it?

9. If the following negative expressions are used in the statement, the tag should be affirmative.

Never, Seldom, Sometimes, Hardly, Barely, Scarcely, Rarely

Examples:

He sometimes smokes, does he?

I never watched television, did I?

10. If the statement has ‘so’ the tag should be positive.

Examples:

So you are married, are you?

So you haven’t done the homework, have you?

11. If the expression ‘ought to’ is used in the statement we use ‘should’ in the tag.

Examples:

He ought to arrive, shouldn’t he?

I ought not to do it, should I?

12. If the expression ‘must’ is used in the statement we use ‘need’ in the tag.

Examples:

She must work hard, needn’t she?

I must not go, need I?

13. If the subject ‘this/that’ is used in the statement we used ‘it’ as the subject in the tag but if ‘these/those’ are used as the subject in the statement we use ‘they’ as the subjects in the tag.

Examples:

These are good, aren’t they?

This is correct, isn’t it?

14. If the subjects ‘there’ is used in the statement the same subject is repeated in the tag.

Examples:

There is a book on the table, isn’t there?

15. If two subjects and two verbs are used in a statement we choose the second pair and not the first in the tag.

Examples:

I don’t know there’s a party tomorrow, is there?

16. Contracted forms.

Examples:

I’d rather sleep, wouldn’t I?

I’d better hurry, hadn’t I?

She’s sick, isn’t she?

17. If the expression ‘used to’ is used in the statement we use ‘did’ in the tag.

Examples:

He used to smoke, didn’t he?

18. If the statement starts with ‘few/little’ the tag should be positive but ‘a few/a little’ the tag should be negative.

Examples:

Little water is in the glass, is it?

There is a little water in the glass, isn’t there?

There are few students in the class, are there?

There are a few students in the class, aren’t there?

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Pronouns

Introduction :
The words, which are used to replace Nouns or Noun groups are called pronouns. A pronouns is used to avoid the repetition of a Noun or a Noun-group again. The examples of Pronouns are: I, You, He, She, It, They, etc.
In order to understand the use of a Pronoun, let us consider the following sentences :
1. Rahul is a boy.
2. Rahul has a bicycle.
3. Rahul goes to school daily.
4. Rahul does not play cricket.
Except in the first sentence, we should use ‘he’ instead of repeating the word ‘Rahul’ again again. thus we can rewrite the above four sentences as give belows :
1. Rahul is a boy.
2. He has a bicycle.
3. He goes to school daily.
4. He does not play cricket.
KINDS OF PRONOUNS :
The Pronoun can be grouped under the followings nine heads :
1. Subject Pronouns
2. Demonstrative Pronouns
3. Possessive Pronouns
4. Reflexive and Emphatic Pronouns
5. Distributive Pronouns
6. Indefinite Pronouns
7. Interrogative Pronouns
8. Relative Pronouns
9. Reciprocal Pronouns

A. Subject Pronoun

Person	Singular	Plural
1st	I	we
2nd	You	You
3rd	He/She/it	They

 

Rules:
1. The subject pronoun is used after the “be” verb auxiliary.
Example:
- It was they who completed the plan.
- It is she who solved the problem.
2.   The subject pronoun is used in the subject position of the sentence.
Example:
- He is doing his homework right now.
- I went to the cinema yesterday.
- The subject pronoun is used with equal comparisions.
- She is as tall as I.(am)
- We are as strong as they (are).
4. If three person, second person and third persion.
- You,he and I went out.
- We, you and they arrived early.

B. Object Pronoun:

Person	Singular	Plural
1st	Me	us
2nd	You	you
3rd	him/her/it	them

Rules:
1. The object pronoun is used in the object position of the sentence.
examples :
she gave me the keys to the door.
I lent her the pen.
2. The object pronoun is used with a preposition.
examples :
The public are looking for them.
They discussed the problem with us.
3.  It is used with equal comparisions.
examples :
She ate as much food as them.
4. Exception :
Whenever ‘let’ is used use an object pronoun.
examples :
Let them do it.
5.    If an adjective is used with than we use subject pronoun. If an adverb pronoun is used with than we use object pronoun.
examples :
She is taller than I (am).
He arrived sooner than me.

C. Possessive Adjective:

Person	Singular	Plural
1st	My	Our
2nd	Your	Your
3rd	His/Her/Its	Their

Note : a possessive adjective is not a pronoun because it doesn’t replace a noun. It only modifies the noun.
examples :
this is my pen.
It is our school.

D. Possessive Pronoun

Person	Singular	Plural
1st	Mine	Ours
2nd	You	Yours
3rd	His/Her/its	Theirs

A possessive pronoun can only be used after using a Possive adjective.
examples :
This is my pen. It is mine.
It is our school. It is ours.
My pen is lost and yours is too.

E. Reflexive Pronoun

Person	Singular	Plural
1st	Mself	Ourselves
2nd	Youself	Yourselves
3rd	Himself/Herself/itself	Themselves

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